Beside antimicrobial and antidiabetic investigations in plants
Beside antimicrobial and antidiabetic investigations in Moroccan plants, other bi-
oassays have been carried out, consisting mainly of studies on molluscicidal, larvi-
cidal, cardiovascular, diuretic, and hypotensive effects. Molluscicidal activity has
been studied using Bulinus truncatus, the mollusc intermediate host of shistosomi-
asis in Morocco. This disease affects more than 200 million people in 73 tropical
and subtropical countries [77] and constitutes one of the major health problems in
rural communities living near slow moving water. In our laboratory, we have in-
itiated a program in which some selected plants have been evaluated for mollusci-
cidal and larvicidal potential, such as the latex of Calotropis procera [31, 78], some
selected Solanaceous plants such as Solanum elaeagnifolium, S. sodomaeum [79],
and Quercus lusitania [80]. Our results showed that C. procera latex and extracts
from S. elaeagnifolium were the most promising as molluscicide and larvicide.
Hmamouchi et al. [81] have also tested the ability of some Moroccan medicinal
plants to kill B. truncatus. They found that the most active extracts were from Origa-
num compactum, Chenopodium ambrosioides, and Ruta chalepensis. The ethylacetate
extracts of O. compactum were also shown to be lethal to the cercariae of Schistoso-
ma haematobium [82].
In addition to these molluscicidal and larvicidal effects, other properties of Mo-
roccan medicinal plants have also been reported in the literature, such as platelet
antiaggregant [83], diuretic [84, 85], antipyretic [86], antitumoral [87], and anti-in-
flammatory [88] activities.
Toxicological Assays
To assess efficacy of a plant as a therapeutic tool to treat a particular disease is not
sufficient, it is also essential to study its toxicity and toxicity mechanisms towards
animals and humans. It is of paramount importance to identify toxic constituents
when evaluating an ethnomedical preparation in a pharmacological model because
the plant or extract may be too toxic to be considered useful. When we reviewed a
number of articles focussed on the toxicity of Moroccan medicinal plants, we
found that this aspect was largely unexplored (Table 6.3).
6.3 Toxicological Assays 131
The “fassoukh” or resinous gum collected from the root of Ferula communis
(Apiaceae) is well known to Moroccan people for its toxicity. Indeed, intoxication is
noticed when cattle graze in an area where F. communis predominates. In addition,
the population consumes the inflorescence of the plant called “Boubal”. The acute
toxicity of fassoukh extract (0.1%) studied in albino rats showed 100% mortality
within nine days [89]. Fraigui et al. [90] tested the toxicity in mice of a coumarin
compound called ferulenol isolated from F. communis. They found that animals ex-
hibited hypoprothrombinemia with internal and external hemorrhages. Lamnouer
[91] demonstrated the anticoagulant effects of coumarin compounds and the role
of vitamin K1 in the recovery of the physiologic disturbance observed.
Plasma collected from lambs given Astragalus lusitanicus showed inhibition of
beta-glucosidase and beta-galactosidase in liver and kidney tissues [92]. The toxic
principles are suggested to be extremely water-soluble compounds since fresh
plants or dry powder rather than methanol extracts were highly toxic, causing car-
diac and respiratory disorders [93].
Another plant with particular interest is a tree endemic to south-western Moroc-
co called Argania spinosa (Sapotaceae). The fruits of argan trees have great ecologi-
cal and economical importance since they furnish an edible and marketable oil that
provides up to 25% of the daily lipid diet in some regions. Charrouf and Guillaume
[95] reviewed the traditional knowledge as well as the most recent results concern-
ing the phytochemistry of A. spinosa. The argan tree is rich in saponins and many
biological data have been obtained from argan saponins such as antifungal, anti-in-
flammatory, and analgesic activities. The toxic effects of argan saponins have also
been studied and have shown an increase in blood creatinine along with focal re-
nal tube deterioration [94].
Conclusions
Among Moroccan medicinal plants a small number have been investigated experi-
mentally. Studies have shown that the percentage of use of herbal remedies by Mo-
132 6 Biological and Toxicological Properties of Moroccan Plant Extracts: Advances in Research
Table 6.3 Moroccan medicinal plants assessed for toxicological effects.
Plant Local name Local traditional use Part tested Reference
Ferula communis “Fessoukh” Anthelminthic, magic, dermatitis Resinous gum 89, 90
Astragalus lusitanicus “Fwila” Cataplasm of roots to treat arthritis Legume 92–94
Argania spinosa “Argan” Tonic, to treat dry skin, wrinkles Water extract 95
and burns. of saponins
Herniaria cinerea “Harrast lahjar” Used against urolithiasis Butanol extract 96
Ajuga iva “Chendgoura” Intestinal disorders; diabetes Decoction of 97
whole plant
roccan people oscillates between 55 and 90% according to the different areas of the
country [63, 75] and traditional herbal healers are frequently consulted (37%) by
the majority of patients, rather than pharmacists (1%). In many regions of Moroc-
co herbal drugs are freely available to the population in nature without any restric-
tion and it is generally believed that all naturally derived drugs are harmless and
can be administered without any risk. Consequently, there is a crucial need to in-
vestigate toxicity levels and duration of treatment before prescription of traditional
remedies to patients, and serious effort must be directed towards education of the
population to the dangers of toxic medicinal plants. Further systematic investiga-
tions into the chemistry and biological efficacy of plant materiel will be needed to
prove their medicinal worth.
It is worth noting the need for a standard method for the pharmacological test-
ing of plant extracts or their constituents. To date, each investigation has been a
standalone study and there is a lack of a multidisciplinary approach to the study of
a particular plant for a particular purpose. We believe that we need to research a
plant comprehensively by carrying out study of all aspects of the selected plant, in-
cluding chemical isolation procedures, biological properties as well as all toxicolog-
ical side effects on human and animal models. This can be done if close collabora-
tion and a multidisciplinary approach between the different teams working in this
field is initiated and sustained.
Finally, high priority should be given to the mechanisms of action of plant ex-
tracts, interaction with available commercial compounds (for example antibiotics
in the case of antimicrobial activities) and finally, study of the pharmacokinetic
profile of the extract [25].
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Beside antimicrobial and antidiabetic investigations in Moroccan plants, other bi-
oassays have been carried out, consisting mainly of studies on molluscicidal, larvi-
cidal, cardiovascular, diuretic, and hypotensive effects. Molluscicidal activity has
been studied using Bulinus truncatus, the mollusc intermediate host of shistosomi-
asis in Morocco. This disease affects more than 200 million people in 73 tropical
and subtropical countries [77] and constitutes one of the major health problems in
rural communities living near slow moving water. In our laboratory, we have in-
itiated a program in which some selected plants have been evaluated for mollusci-
cidal and larvicidal potential, such as the latex of Calotropis procera [31, 78], some
selected Solanaceous plants such as Solanum elaeagnifolium, S. sodomaeum [79],
and Quercus lusitania [80]. Our results showed that C. procera latex and extracts
from S. elaeagnifolium were the most promising as molluscicide and larvicide.
Hmamouchi et al. [81] have also tested the ability of some Moroccan medicinal
plants to kill B. truncatus. They found that the most active extracts were from Origa-
num compactum, Chenopodium ambrosioides, and Ruta chalepensis. The ethylacetate
extracts of O. compactum were also shown to be lethal to the cercariae of Schistoso-
ma haematobium [82].
In addition to these molluscicidal and larvicidal effects, other properties of Mo-
roccan medicinal plants have also been reported in the literature, such as platelet
antiaggregant [83], diuretic [84, 85], antipyretic [86], antitumoral [87], and anti-in-
flammatory [88] activities.
Toxicological Assays
To assess efficacy of a plant as a therapeutic tool to treat a particular disease is not
sufficient, it is also essential to study its toxicity and toxicity mechanisms towards
animals and humans. It is of paramount importance to identify toxic constituents
when evaluating an ethnomedical preparation in a pharmacological model because
the plant or extract may be too toxic to be considered useful. When we reviewed a
number of articles focussed on the toxicity of Moroccan medicinal plants, we
found that this aspect was largely unexplored (Table 6.3).
6.3 Toxicological Assays 131
The “fassoukh” or resinous gum collected from the root of Ferula communis
(Apiaceae) is well known to Moroccan people for its toxicity. Indeed, intoxication is
noticed when cattle graze in an area where F. communis predominates. In addition,
the population consumes the inflorescence of the plant called “Boubal”. The acute
toxicity of fassoukh extract (0.1%) studied in albino rats showed 100% mortality
within nine days [89]. Fraigui et al. [90] tested the toxicity in mice of a coumarin
compound called ferulenol isolated from F. communis. They found that animals ex-
hibited hypoprothrombinemia with internal and external hemorrhages. Lamnouer
[91] demonstrated the anticoagulant effects of coumarin compounds and the role
of vitamin K1 in the recovery of the physiologic disturbance observed.
Plasma collected from lambs given Astragalus lusitanicus showed inhibition of
beta-glucosidase and beta-galactosidase in liver and kidney tissues [92]. The toxic
principles are suggested to be extremely water-soluble compounds since fresh
plants or dry powder rather than methanol extracts were highly toxic, causing car-
diac and respiratory disorders [93].
Another plant with particular interest is a tree endemic to south-western Moroc-
co called Argania spinosa (Sapotaceae). The fruits of argan trees have great ecologi-
cal and economical importance since they furnish an edible and marketable oil that
provides up to 25% of the daily lipid diet in some regions. Charrouf and Guillaume
[95] reviewed the traditional knowledge as well as the most recent results concern-
ing the phytochemistry of A. spinosa. The argan tree is rich in saponins and many
biological data have been obtained from argan saponins such as antifungal, anti-in-
flammatory, and analgesic activities. The toxic effects of argan saponins have also
been studied and have shown an increase in blood creatinine along with focal re-
nal tube deterioration [94].
Conclusions
Among Moroccan medicinal plants a small number have been investigated experi-
mentally. Studies have shown that the percentage of use of herbal remedies by Mo-
132 6 Biological and Toxicological Properties of Moroccan Plant Extracts: Advances in Research
Table 6.3 Moroccan medicinal plants assessed for toxicological effects.
Plant Local name Local traditional use Part tested Reference
Ferula communis “Fessoukh” Anthelminthic, magic, dermatitis Resinous gum 89, 90
Astragalus lusitanicus “Fwila” Cataplasm of roots to treat arthritis Legume 92–94
Argania spinosa “Argan” Tonic, to treat dry skin, wrinkles Water extract 95
and burns. of saponins
Herniaria cinerea “Harrast lahjar” Used against urolithiasis Butanol extract 96
Ajuga iva “Chendgoura” Intestinal disorders; diabetes Decoction of 97
whole plant
roccan people oscillates between 55 and 90% according to the different areas of the
country [63, 75] and traditional herbal healers are frequently consulted (37%) by
the majority of patients, rather than pharmacists (1%). In many regions of Moroc-
co herbal drugs are freely available to the population in nature without any restric-
tion and it is generally believed that all naturally derived drugs are harmless and
can be administered without any risk. Consequently, there is a crucial need to in-
vestigate toxicity levels and duration of treatment before prescription of traditional
remedies to patients, and serious effort must be directed towards education of the
population to the dangers of toxic medicinal plants. Further systematic investiga-
tions into the chemistry and biological efficacy of plant materiel will be needed to
prove their medicinal worth.
It is worth noting the need for a standard method for the pharmacological test-
ing of plant extracts or their constituents. To date, each investigation has been a
standalone study and there is a lack of a multidisciplinary approach to the study of
a particular plant for a particular purpose. We believe that we need to research a
plant comprehensively by carrying out study of all aspects of the selected plant, in-
cluding chemical isolation procedures, biological properties as well as all toxicolog-
ical side effects on human and animal models. This can be done if close collabora-
tion and a multidisciplinary approach between the different teams working in this
field is initiated and sustained.
Finally, high priority should be given to the mechanisms of action of plant ex-
tracts, interaction with available commercial compounds (for example antibiotics
in the case of antimicrobial activities) and finally, study of the pharmacokinetic
profile of the extract [25].
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