Ethnobotanic and Ethnopharmacology of Traditional Moroccan Plants
Ethnobotanic Surveys
Many studies have been published regarding the Moroccan pharmacopoeia [3–5].
The geographical position of Morocco is in the extreme north-west of Africa (Fig.
6.1) and the great diversity of its climate and ecology, including mountainous, lit-
toral, and desert areas, has favored the development of a rich flora which is estimat-
ed at 4200 native plants and about 1500 introduced species [6, 7].
6.2 Ethnobotanic and Ethnopharmacology of Traditional Moroccan Plants 125
Fig. 6.1 Regions of Morocco.
1 Oued Eddahab-Lagouira,
2 Laayoune-Boujdour-Sakia El
Hamra, 3 Guelmim-Es Smara,
4 Souss-Massa-Draa, 5 Gharb-
Chrarda-Beni Hssen, 6 Chaouia-
Ourdigha, 7 Marrakech-Tensift-El
Haouz, 8 Oriental, 9 Casablanca,
10 Rabat-Salè-Zemmour-Zaar,
11 Doukkala-Abda, 12 Tadla-Azilal,
13 14 Fès-Boulman.
Pharmacobotanical studies have been undertaken in different regions of the
country and have demonstrated the richness of the plants used and the important
place of traditional medicine in Moroccan society for primary health care. Almost
all the botanical families, such as Apiaceae, Asteraceae, and Lamiaceae, are repre-
sented and the traditional Moroccan pharmacopoeia concerns a large spectrum of
diseases.
Several authors have reported the most frequently used plants and the diseases
for which they are prescribed [3–5, 8, 9]. From these studies it appears that the ma-
jor diseases cured by Moroccan traditional medicines are related to digestive pa-
thology (mainly intestinal antiseptic and anthelmintic), skin and health care, bron-
chopulmonary, urinary system, and liver disorders [3]. The activities of midwives
related to reproductive functions (emmenagogue and other gynecologic treatment)
are also well represented. In general, people use infusions or decoctions and often
use more than one plant either separately or mixed together [9].
Biological Activities
6.2.2.1 Antimicrobial Properties
The development of microbial resistance towards antibiotics has heightened the
importance of the search for new potential effective plants and plant constituents
against pathogenic microorganisms. Because infectious diseases are usually char-
acterized by clear symptoms, traditional practises have been able to recognize such
diseases easily and have developed plant preparations against such infections. Fun-
gal infections play an increasingly important role in many illnesses and are the di-
rect causative agents in serious complications of diseases such as AIDS. In fact,
treatment with immunosuppressive drugs and the spread of AIDS has shown that
diseases caused by weakness in immunity are becoming more prevalent. The most
common opportunistic fungus associated with immunocompromised patients is
the genus Candida, and it has been reported that 36–85% of HIV-infected patients
have Candida infections [10–12].
Biologically active compounds from plant sources have always been of great
interest to scientists working on infectious diseases. In recent years there has been
a growing interest in the evaluation of plants possessing antibacterial activity for
various diseases [13]. Numerous broad-based screening programmes have been in-
itiated recently, in which a large number of plant species have been evaluated for
their antimicrobial activity in different regions of the world [14–20].
Since infectious diseases are common in Morocco, the search for anti-infective
agents has occupied many Moroccan research laboratories, and in recent years sev-
eral studies have looked at the antimicrobial activities of extracts of Moroccan
plants. Table 6.1 gives a summary of the extracts and phytochemicals isolated from
Moroccan plants that have proven antimicrobial properties.
The methods used to study Moroccan plant extracts are the agar dilution or dif-
fusion methods. It is well known that many factors such as temperature [21], inoc-
ulum size, and medium composition [22] can influence the results and then make
it difficult to compare results from different authors. Rios et al. [23] have reported
a review of the methods used to screen natural products with antimicrobial activ-
ity. They suggested the use of the agar dilution method for essential oils and non-
polar plant extracts and the diffusion method for preliminary screening of pure
substances. They also recommend that the diffusion method should never be used
as a definitive method or to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration
(MIC) value of a sample. In addition, it has also been shown that the extraction pro-
cedure has strong effects on the antimicrobial activity of a selected plant, especial-
ly the pH of the extracting medium [24].
Regarding the different Moroccan publications on antimicrobial activity we not-
ed the absence of a standard method for investigation and found that the testing
methodology varied considerably from laboratory to laboratory in detail. Large
numbers of authors used the dilution method for testing but the choice of test mi-
croorganisms is often not defined. In general, traditional remedies are used in
aqueous form but many workers preferred to assay essential oils or plant organic
126 6 Biological and Toxicological Properties of Moroccan Plant Extracts: Advances in Research
solvent extracts, using solvents of increasing polarity (Table 6.1). Rios and Recio
[25] mentioned that it has generally been the essential oils of the plants rather than
their extracts that had the greatest use in the treatment of infectious pathologies.
The germs used for the assay are Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, usu-
ally Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus. This bacterium is usually found
to be sensitive to Moroccan extracts. Some authors have assayed efficacy against a
particular bacterium or fungus, for example Helicobacter pylori [26], Cunninghamel-
la echinulata [27], and Botrytis cinerea [28]. A review of articles published between
1978 and 1988 revealed that Gram-positive bacteria are the most susceptible germs
and phenolics are the most active constituents [25].
In the case of fungi, Candida albicans is often used for assay and is found to be
sensitive [29–31]. When screening 1248 extracts from higher plants, Mitscher et al.
[32] found frequent activity against S. aureus (15%) and C. albicans (7%). It is also
important to mention the harvesting stage of the plant since extracts are generally
richest in antimicrobial agents after the flowering stage.
Very few studies reported bio-guided isolation of the active principles respon-
sible for the activity observed, or at least a fractionation of the active extracts in or-
der to determine more precisely the nature of the active constituents. From the lit-
erature it is clear that the chemical structure of the antimicrobial agents found in
higher plants belong to the most commonly encountered classes of higher plant
secondary metabolites [32, 41]. An example of a compound obtained in correlation
with the verification of antimicrobial ethnomedical treatment is 2-isopropyl-4-
methylphenol isolated from Pulicaria odora essential oil [27]. There are various
6.2 Ethnobotanic and Ethnopharmacology of Traditional Moroccan Plants 127
Table 6.1 Some Moroccan plant extracts and phytochemicals with antimicrobial activities.
Plant Extracts or compounds used Organisms tested References
Centaurea spp. Sesquiterpene lactones Cunninghamella echinulata 27
Origanum compactum and Whole plant, essential oil Botrytis cinerea 28
Thymus glandulosus
Sium nodiflorum Aerial part (ethylether, ethylacetate, Fungi 29
butanol)
Pulicaria odora Root, essential oil Bacteria, fungi 30, 33
Aristolochia paucinervis Rhizome, leaf (methanol, hexane, Bacteria 26, 34, 35
chloroform, ethylacetate, butanol)
Cotula cinerea Whole plant, ethylether, ethylacetate, Bacteria 36
butanol
Cistus incanus and Leaf, water, ethylacetate Bacteria, fungi 37
C. monspeliensis
Cystoseira tamariscifolia Diterpenoid Bacteria, fungi 38
Chrysanthemum viscidehirtum Aerial part, essential oil Bacteria 39
Calotopis procera Ethanol Fungi 31
Eugenia caryophyllata Water Bacteria 40
strategies used to study medicinal plants, including the phytochemical approach,
in which a particular compound type is regarded as being of interest and attempts
made to isolate it. Thus, some Moroccan researchers have focused their work on
the isolation and identification of new compounds without following a bio-guided
fractionation approach. In Table 6.2, we give the different secondary metabolites
identified from Moroccan plant extracts and we think that it will be of value to de-
termine the antimicrobial potential of these isolated compounds and also to check
their pharmacological properties using different biological testing models. This
evaluation may lead to interesting spectrum activity.
Ethnobotanic Surveys
Many studies have been published regarding the Moroccan pharmacopoeia [3–5].
The geographical position of Morocco is in the extreme north-west of Africa (Fig.
6.1) and the great diversity of its climate and ecology, including mountainous, lit-
toral, and desert areas, has favored the development of a rich flora which is estimat-
ed at 4200 native plants and about 1500 introduced species [6, 7].
6.2 Ethnobotanic and Ethnopharmacology of Traditional Moroccan Plants 125
Fig. 6.1 Regions of Morocco.
1 Oued Eddahab-Lagouira,
2 Laayoune-Boujdour-Sakia El
Hamra, 3 Guelmim-Es Smara,
4 Souss-Massa-Draa, 5 Gharb-
Chrarda-Beni Hssen, 6 Chaouia-
Ourdigha, 7 Marrakech-Tensift-El
Haouz, 8 Oriental, 9 Casablanca,
10 Rabat-Salè-Zemmour-Zaar,
11 Doukkala-Abda, 12 Tadla-Azilal,
13 14 Fès-Boulman.
Pharmacobotanical studies have been undertaken in different regions of the
country and have demonstrated the richness of the plants used and the important
place of traditional medicine in Moroccan society for primary health care. Almost
all the botanical families, such as Apiaceae, Asteraceae, and Lamiaceae, are repre-
sented and the traditional Moroccan pharmacopoeia concerns a large spectrum of
diseases.
Several authors have reported the most frequently used plants and the diseases
for which they are prescribed [3–5, 8, 9]. From these studies it appears that the ma-
jor diseases cured by Moroccan traditional medicines are related to digestive pa-
thology (mainly intestinal antiseptic and anthelmintic), skin and health care, bron-
chopulmonary, urinary system, and liver disorders [3]. The activities of midwives
related to reproductive functions (emmenagogue and other gynecologic treatment)
are also well represented. In general, people use infusions or decoctions and often
use more than one plant either separately or mixed together [9].
Biological Activities
6.2.2.1 Antimicrobial Properties
The development of microbial resistance towards antibiotics has heightened the
importance of the search for new potential effective plants and plant constituents
against pathogenic microorganisms. Because infectious diseases are usually char-
acterized by clear symptoms, traditional practises have been able to recognize such
diseases easily and have developed plant preparations against such infections. Fun-
gal infections play an increasingly important role in many illnesses and are the di-
rect causative agents in serious complications of diseases such as AIDS. In fact,
treatment with immunosuppressive drugs and the spread of AIDS has shown that
diseases caused by weakness in immunity are becoming more prevalent. The most
common opportunistic fungus associated with immunocompromised patients is
the genus Candida, and it has been reported that 36–85% of HIV-infected patients
have Candida infections [10–12].
Biologically active compounds from plant sources have always been of great
interest to scientists working on infectious diseases. In recent years there has been
a growing interest in the evaluation of plants possessing antibacterial activity for
various diseases [13]. Numerous broad-based screening programmes have been in-
itiated recently, in which a large number of plant species have been evaluated for
their antimicrobial activity in different regions of the world [14–20].
Since infectious diseases are common in Morocco, the search for anti-infective
agents has occupied many Moroccan research laboratories, and in recent years sev-
eral studies have looked at the antimicrobial activities of extracts of Moroccan
plants. Table 6.1 gives a summary of the extracts and phytochemicals isolated from
Moroccan plants that have proven antimicrobial properties.
The methods used to study Moroccan plant extracts are the agar dilution or dif-
fusion methods. It is well known that many factors such as temperature [21], inoc-
ulum size, and medium composition [22] can influence the results and then make
it difficult to compare results from different authors. Rios et al. [23] have reported
a review of the methods used to screen natural products with antimicrobial activ-
ity. They suggested the use of the agar dilution method for essential oils and non-
polar plant extracts and the diffusion method for preliminary screening of pure
substances. They also recommend that the diffusion method should never be used
as a definitive method or to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration
(MIC) value of a sample. In addition, it has also been shown that the extraction pro-
cedure has strong effects on the antimicrobial activity of a selected plant, especial-
ly the pH of the extracting medium [24].
Regarding the different Moroccan publications on antimicrobial activity we not-
ed the absence of a standard method for investigation and found that the testing
methodology varied considerably from laboratory to laboratory in detail. Large
numbers of authors used the dilution method for testing but the choice of test mi-
croorganisms is often not defined. In general, traditional remedies are used in
aqueous form but many workers preferred to assay essential oils or plant organic
126 6 Biological and Toxicological Properties of Moroccan Plant Extracts: Advances in Research
solvent extracts, using solvents of increasing polarity (Table 6.1). Rios and Recio
[25] mentioned that it has generally been the essential oils of the plants rather than
their extracts that had the greatest use in the treatment of infectious pathologies.
The germs used for the assay are Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, usu-
ally Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus. This bacterium is usually found
to be sensitive to Moroccan extracts. Some authors have assayed efficacy against a
particular bacterium or fungus, for example Helicobacter pylori [26], Cunninghamel-
la echinulata [27], and Botrytis cinerea [28]. A review of articles published between
1978 and 1988 revealed that Gram-positive bacteria are the most susceptible germs
and phenolics are the most active constituents [25].
In the case of fungi, Candida albicans is often used for assay and is found to be
sensitive [29–31]. When screening 1248 extracts from higher plants, Mitscher et al.
[32] found frequent activity against S. aureus (15%) and C. albicans (7%). It is also
important to mention the harvesting stage of the plant since extracts are generally
richest in antimicrobial agents after the flowering stage.
Very few studies reported bio-guided isolation of the active principles respon-
sible for the activity observed, or at least a fractionation of the active extracts in or-
der to determine more precisely the nature of the active constituents. From the lit-
erature it is clear that the chemical structure of the antimicrobial agents found in
higher plants belong to the most commonly encountered classes of higher plant
secondary metabolites [32, 41]. An example of a compound obtained in correlation
with the verification of antimicrobial ethnomedical treatment is 2-isopropyl-4-
methylphenol isolated from Pulicaria odora essential oil [27]. There are various
6.2 Ethnobotanic and Ethnopharmacology of Traditional Moroccan Plants 127
Table 6.1 Some Moroccan plant extracts and phytochemicals with antimicrobial activities.
Plant Extracts or compounds used Organisms tested References
Centaurea spp. Sesquiterpene lactones Cunninghamella echinulata 27
Origanum compactum and Whole plant, essential oil Botrytis cinerea 28
Thymus glandulosus
Sium nodiflorum Aerial part (ethylether, ethylacetate, Fungi 29
butanol)
Pulicaria odora Root, essential oil Bacteria, fungi 30, 33
Aristolochia paucinervis Rhizome, leaf (methanol, hexane, Bacteria 26, 34, 35
chloroform, ethylacetate, butanol)
Cotula cinerea Whole plant, ethylether, ethylacetate, Bacteria 36
butanol
Cistus incanus and Leaf, water, ethylacetate Bacteria, fungi 37
C. monspeliensis
Cystoseira tamariscifolia Diterpenoid Bacteria, fungi 38
Chrysanthemum viscidehirtum Aerial part, essential oil Bacteria 39
Calotopis procera Ethanol Fungi 31
Eugenia caryophyllata Water Bacteria 40
strategies used to study medicinal plants, including the phytochemical approach,
in which a particular compound type is regarded as being of interest and attempts
made to isolate it. Thus, some Moroccan researchers have focused their work on
the isolation and identification of new compounds without following a bio-guided
fractionation approach. In Table 6.2, we give the different secondary metabolites
identified from Moroccan plant extracts and we think that it will be of value to de-
termine the antimicrobial potential of these isolated compounds and also to check
their pharmacological properties using different biological testing models. This
evaluation may lead to interesting spectrum activity.
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