Infinitives
The full infinitive is used:
• to express purpose.
I went to the post office to post some letters.
• after it + be + adjective (it’s nice, it was stupid, etc.)
It was great to see you after such a long time.
• after the first/second/last/best, etc.
Neil Armstrong was the first man to walk on the moon.
• after certain adjectives: afraid, surprised, free, happy,
ready, sorry.
At last he was free to do what he wanted.
• after too and enough.
Ben is too tired to go jogging today.
It isn’t warm enough to go to the sea yet.
• after certain verbs (afford, agree, appear, decide, forget,
hope, learn, manage, need, offer, plan, promise, refuse,
seem, tend, want, would like, etc.).
I hope to see you again soon.
• after the objects of certain verbs (advise, allow,
encourage, invite, order, persuade, teach, tell, etc.)
It was Glen who persuaded me to apply for this job.
• after question words (how, what, when, where, etc.)
I don’t know what to do.
The bare infinitive is used:
• after modal verbs (can, may, must, should, etc.).
You should start thinking about your future.
• after the verbs let and make in the Active Voice.
My parents let me stay up later at weekends.
Our teacher made us retake the test.
• after would rather and had better.
I’d rather go to an Italian restaurant tonight.
You’d better tell me everything you know about this.
• didn’t have to / didn’t need to + base form express
absence of necessity in the past (something wasn’t
necessary and may or may not have been done).
I didn’t have to / didn’t need to pick up the kids from
school.
• needn’t have + past participle expresses absence of
necessity in the past (something wasn’t necessary, but it
was done).
You needn’t have brought anything. (= It wasn’t
necessary, but you did.)
Expressing possibility
• can / could / may / might + base form express possibility
in the present or future.
He could / may / might be at home now.
He can be very rude sometimes.
• may not / might not + base form express the possibility
that something will not happen in the present or future.
We may not / might not go to the conference.
• may / might + have + past participle express possibility
in the past.
I may / might have read the book, but I’m not sure.
• could + have + past participle expresses possibility in the
past which was not fulfilled.
You were lucky. You could have been hurt.
Verbs followed by full infinitive and -ing form
• Some verbs such as start, begin, continue, intend, etc. can
be followed by either the full infinitive or the -ing form
with no difference in meaning.
It started to rain / raining a minute ago.
• Some verbs can be followed by either the full infinitive
or the -ing form, but with a difference in meaning.
try + -ing form = do something to see what effect it will
have
If you have a sore throat, try drinking some hot tea.
try + full infinitive = make an effort
I’ll try to come tonight, but I can’t promise anything.
remember + -ing form = remember something that has
already happened
Do you remember meeting Brendan at the Bookers’ last
week?
remember + full infinitive = remember something
before doing it
Did you remember to lock the door before you left?
forget + -ing form = forget something that has already
happened
I’ll never forget visiting the Louvre.
forget + full infinitive = forget something you are
supposed to do
Chris forgot to tell you that he was going away for the
weekend.
regret + -ing form = regret something that has already
happened
Chelsea regretted talking to her sister like that.
regret + full infinitive = be sorry to do something
We regret to inform you that there are no more tickets for
tomorrow’s football match.
stop + -ing form = terminate an action and no longer
do it after that time
Stop making up excuses all the time.
stop + full infinitive = pause temporarily in order to do
something else
I was writing a letter but I stopped to answer the phone.
Making Deductions
• must + base form expresses certainty that something is
true.
My father must be at work now.
• can’t + base form expresses belief that something is
impossible.
You can’t be serious.
• must + have + past participle expresses certainty that
something happened in the past.
I must have left my wallet at home.
• can’t/couldn’t + have + past participle express certainty
that something didn’t happen.
You can’t/couldn’t have met their parents. They live in the UK.
Question Tags
Question tags are short questions placed at the end of a
statement. They are formed with an auxiliary verb and
a personal pronoun. We use them when we are not sure
about something or when we are asking for confirmation.
• If the statement is positive, then the question tag is
negative.
You spoke to Tom yesterday, didn’t you?
• If the statement is negative, then the question tag is
positive.
You aren’t coming to school tomorrow, are you?
Note the following question tags:
• I am your best friend, aren’t I?
• Let’s do something together tonight, shall we?
• Open the window, will/can/could you?
• Don’t forget to call me, will you?
• Somebody is at the door, aren’t they?
• Nobody is home, are they?
Reported Speech (Statements)
In Direct Speech, we repeat the exact words that someone
said. We usually use the verb say and the words of the
speaker are put in quotation marks.
Irina said, ‘Tina is on the phone.’
-ing forms
The -ing form is used:
• as a noun (subject or object of a verb).
Exercising is a good way of keeping fit.
• after the verb go, indicating physical activities.
We often go fishing in the summer.
• after certain verbs (avoid, enjoy, finish, like, love, hate,
imagine, keep, risk, spend (time), suggest, consider, etc.).
Martin suggested going to the museum on Friday.
• after certain expressions (be interested in, can’t stand,
don’t mind, how about, it’s no use, it’s no good, it’s
worth, there’s no point (in), be used to, etc.).
It’s no use trying to do everything yourself. Ask Ethan for
help.
• after prepositions (for, about, without, etc.).
I’m so excited about going to university next year.
136
In Reported Speech, we report the meaning of what
someone said, without using their exact words. We use a
reporting verb, usually say or tell, followed by that
(which can be omitted) and the reported statement.
Irina said that Tina was on the phone.
• We use say when there is no indirect object.
‘I can’t fix the car,’ he said.
He said that he couldn’t fix the car.
• We use tell when there is an indirect object.
‘I’ll be late, Tom,’ he said.
He told Tom he would be late.
NOTE
• When we change a sentence from Direct to Reported
Speech, pronouns and possessive adjectives change
according to the meaning of the sentence.
‘I like your new bike,’ said Ian.
Ian said that he liked my new bike.
• When a sentence changes from Direct to Reported
Speech, tenses, modals and time expressions change as
follows:
Present Simple Ô Past Simple
Eddie said, ‘I want to buy a new car.’
Eddie said (that) he wanted to buy a new car.
Present Progressive Ô Past Progressive
Alan said, ‘I’m having a shower.’
Alan said he was having a shower.
Past Simple Ô Past Perfect Simple
Lars said, ‘I saw a bear behind the tree.’
Lars said he had seen a bear behind the tree.
Present Perfect Simple Ô Past Perfect Simple
Tim said, ‘I’ve seen the Loch Ness monster.’
Tim said he had seen the Loch Ness monster.
Present Perfect Progressive Ô Past Perfect Progressive
Andy said, ‘I’ve been waiting for an hour.’
Andy said he had been waiting for an hour.
will Ô would
Dan said, ‘I’ll call you later.’
Dan said he would call me later.
can Ô could
Mike said, ‘I can show you the way.’
Mike said he could show me the way.
Conditional Sentences Type 1 Ô Conditional Sentences
Type 2
Diane said, ‘If we take a taxi, we’ll get there quicker.’
Diane said if they took a taxi, they would get there quicker.
may Ô might
Paul said, ‘I may go to Brazil.’
Paul said he might go to Brazil.
must Ô had to
Jim said, ‘You must work hard.’
Jim said I had to work hard.
• These changes cannot be made when the sentence
expresses a general truth or the reporting verb is in
the Present, Future or Present Perfect Simple.
‘I enjoy cooking,’ Cindy said.
Cindy said (that) she enjoys cooking.
‘I will move to Dublin next year,’ Eric says.
Eric says he will move to Dublin next year.
• The Past Perfect and the verbs could, might, should,
would and used to do not change in Reported Speech.
• The Past Progressive usually doesn’t change but
when it does, it changes to Past Perfect Progressive.
• Conditional Sentences Types 2 and 3 do not change
in Reported Speech.
NOTE
Special Introductory Verbs
There are a number of special introductory verbs used in
Reported Speech.
• verb + full infinitive (agree, claim, demand, offer,
promise, refuse, threaten, etc.)
‘I’ll help you,’ said Patty.
Patty offered to help me.
• verb + object + full infinitive (advise, allow, ask, beg,
encourage, forbid, invite, order, permit, remind, warn, etc.)
‘You should take better care of yourself, Ivana,’ said Gina.
Gina advised Ivana to take better care of herself.
now Ô then
Mark said, ‘I’ll talk to him now!’
Mark said he would talk to him then.
today, tonight Ô that day, that night
Tom said, ‘We’re meeting Tim today.’
Tom said they were meeting Tim that day.
yesterday Ô the previous day / the day before
Danny said, ‘I visited my lawyer yesterday.’
Danny said he had visited his lawyer the previous day.
this morning/year, etc. Ô that morning/year, etc.
Mary said, ‘I haven’t eaten anything since this morning.’
Mary said she hadn’t eaten anything since that morning.
here Ô there
Eric said, ‘I saw it here.’
Eric said he had seen it there.
tomorrow Ô the next day / the following day
Steve said, ‘I’m flying to Paris tomorrow.’
Steve said he was flying to Paris the following day.
ago Ô before
Ben said, ‘I bought this car two days ago.’
Ben said he had bought that car two days before.
last week/month, etc. Ô the previous week/month, etc.
the week/month, etc. before
Dave said, ‘I called Ted last week.’
Dave said that he had called Ted the previous week.
next week / month, etc. Ô the following week/ month, etc.
Gary said, ‘I’ll return the book next week.’
Gary said he would return the book the following week.
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Clauses of Result
• We use Clauses of Result to express the result of an
action or a conclusion.
• so + adjective/adverb + (that)
He was so ill (that) he left work early.
• such + (a/an) + (adjective) + noun + (that)
It was such a hot day that we all went swimming.
• We say so + much/many, but such a lot of.
• That can be omitted, especially in spoken English.
NOTE
• When the request is in question form, in Reported
Speech it changes to full infinitive.
‘Will you open the door, please?’ Vicky said.
Vicky asked me to open the door.
NOTE
Present Simple Past Simple
I am called
Are you called?
They aren’t called
I was called
Were you called?
They weren’t called
Present Perfect Simple Past Perfect Simple
I’ve been called
Have you been called?
You haven’t been called
I’d been called
Had you been called?
They hadn’t been called
Future Will Modal Verbs
I’ll be called
Will you be called?
They won’t be called
I can be called
Should you be called?
They mustn’t be called
NOTE Irregular verbs page 142.
Passive Voice II
We form the Progressive tenses in the Passive Voice with
the appropriate form of the verb be + being + the past
participle of the main verb.
Passive Voice I
Use
We use the Passive Voice to emphasise an action rather
than who or what is responsible for it.
Formation
The Passive Voice is formed with the verb be + the past
participle of the main verb.
The person who causes or carries out the action is
called an agent and is preceded by the preposition
by.
We usually omit the agent:
• when the action interests us more than the agent.
• when we don’t know the agent.
• when it is easy to figure out who the agent is.
The bank was robbed! (by someone who we do not know)
English is spoken in Australia. (by people)
NOTE
Present Progressive Past Progressive
I am being called
Are you being called?
They aren’t being called
I was being called
Were you being called?
They weren’t being called
• The verbs make, see, hear, etc. are followed by a bare
infinitive in the Active Voice but in the Passive Voice
they are followed by a full infinitive.
My mum made me eat the whole soup.
I was made to eat the whole soup.
Reported Speech (Commands and Requests)
• We commonly use tell, command, advise, warn or order when
we report commands and ask when we report requests.
• The Imperative changes to full infinitive or not + full infinitive.
‘Sit down, Rex,’ said Dan. Ô Dan told Rex to sit down.
‘Don’t tell anyone, please,’ Ben said. Ô Ben asked me not to
tell anyone.
Reported Speech (Questions)
• We usually introduce reported questions with the
reporting verbs ask, wonder and the expression want to
know.
• The verbs in reported questions are in the affirmative
form.
‘Why did you go to the doctor?’ he asked.
He asked me why I had gone to the doctor.
• If the direct question begins with a question word, the
reported question also begins with the same question word.
‘Where are you going?’ she asked.
She asked me where I was going.
• If the direct question does not begin with a question
word, the reported question begins with if or whether.
‘Did you enjoy the meal?’ he asked.
He asked me if/whether I had enjoyed the meal.
• When we change questions from Direct to Reported
Speech, pronouns, tenses, adverbs, etc. change in the
same way as in reported statements.
• verb + -ing form (accuse sb of, apologise for, admit
(to), complain to sb about, deny, insist on, suggest, etc.)
‘George lied to me,’ said Cyril.
Cyril accused George of lying to him.
• verb + that clause (admit, agree, claim, complain,
exclaim, explain, inform sb, promise, suggest, etc.)
‘You never listen to me,’ he said.
He complained that I never listened to him.
138
Unreal Past I
Sometimes we use the Past Simple when referring to the
present or future. This is called the Unreal Past.
• We use wish / if only + Past Simple to make a wish
about a present or future situation which we would like
to be different.
I wish you didn’t have to go tomorrow. (= But you have to).
I wish I had a bigger house. (= But I don’t).
• We use wish / if only + could + bare infinitive to
express regret about something we cannot do at
present.
I wish I could speak Italian.
I wish I could come with you on Friday.
• We use would rather + Past Simple to say that we
would prefer somebody to do or not do something
(the subject of would rather must be different from the
subject of the main verb).
I’d rather you didn’t use my phone.
• We use it’s time + Past Simple to complain, criticise or
express what we think should be done.
It’s time you went to bed.
• We use as if / as though + Past Simple for untrue
situations.
He speaks as if he were an expert. (He is not.)
Clauses of Concession
• We use Clauses of Concession to express contrast or
opposition to the main clause.
• although / even though + subject + verb
Although/Even though he was starving, he didn’t take any
of the food they offered him.
• in spite of / despite + noun / -ing form / what...
Despite the heavy rain, it was very hot.
In spite of feeling afraid, Jim went on the roller coaster.
Despite what you may think, that’s not the case.
• in spite of / despite + the fact + that-clause
He went to school in spite of/despite the fact that he had a
terrible headache.
Unreal Past II
• We use wish / if only + Past Perfect Simple to express
regret about something that happened or didn’t happen
in the past.
I wish I had taken a torch with me. I can’t see a thing.
• We use would rather / as if / as though + Past Perfect
Simple to refer to the past.
I’d rather you had informed me earlier.
He talked to us as if he had known us for years.
Conditional Sentences Type 3
Conditional Sentences Type 3 are used:
• to talk about unreal or imaginary situations in the past.
If I had been offered the job, I would have taken it.
• to express regret.
If I hadn’t gone to bed so late last night, I would have
woken up on time this morning.
• to criticise somebody/something.
If you had completed your degree, you might have found
a better job.
The full infinitive is used:
• to express purpose.
I went to the post office to post some letters.
• after it + be + adjective (it’s nice, it was stupid, etc.)
It was great to see you after such a long time.
• after the first/second/last/best, etc.
Neil Armstrong was the first man to walk on the moon.
• after certain adjectives: afraid, surprised, free, happy,
ready, sorry.
At last he was free to do what he wanted.
• after too and enough.
Ben is too tired to go jogging today.
It isn’t warm enough to go to the sea yet.
• after certain verbs (afford, agree, appear, decide, forget,
hope, learn, manage, need, offer, plan, promise, refuse,
seem, tend, want, would like, etc.).
I hope to see you again soon.
• after the objects of certain verbs (advise, allow,
encourage, invite, order, persuade, teach, tell, etc.)
It was Glen who persuaded me to apply for this job.
• after question words (how, what, when, where, etc.)
I don’t know what to do.
The bare infinitive is used:
• after modal verbs (can, may, must, should, etc.).
You should start thinking about your future.
• after the verbs let and make in the Active Voice.
My parents let me stay up later at weekends.
Our teacher made us retake the test.
• after would rather and had better.
I’d rather go to an Italian restaurant tonight.
You’d better tell me everything you know about this.
• didn’t have to / didn’t need to + base form express
absence of necessity in the past (something wasn’t
necessary and may or may not have been done).
I didn’t have to / didn’t need to pick up the kids from
school.
• needn’t have + past participle expresses absence of
necessity in the past (something wasn’t necessary, but it
was done).
You needn’t have brought anything. (= It wasn’t
necessary, but you did.)
Expressing possibility
• can / could / may / might + base form express possibility
in the present or future.
He could / may / might be at home now.
He can be very rude sometimes.
• may not / might not + base form express the possibility
that something will not happen in the present or future.
We may not / might not go to the conference.
• may / might + have + past participle express possibility
in the past.
I may / might have read the book, but I’m not sure.
• could + have + past participle expresses possibility in the
past which was not fulfilled.
You were lucky. You could have been hurt.
Verbs followed by full infinitive and -ing form
• Some verbs such as start, begin, continue, intend, etc. can
be followed by either the full infinitive or the -ing form
with no difference in meaning.
It started to rain / raining a minute ago.
• Some verbs can be followed by either the full infinitive
or the -ing form, but with a difference in meaning.
try + -ing form = do something to see what effect it will
have
If you have a sore throat, try drinking some hot tea.
try + full infinitive = make an effort
I’ll try to come tonight, but I can’t promise anything.
remember + -ing form = remember something that has
already happened
Do you remember meeting Brendan at the Bookers’ last
week?
remember + full infinitive = remember something
before doing it
Did you remember to lock the door before you left?
forget + -ing form = forget something that has already
happened
I’ll never forget visiting the Louvre.
forget + full infinitive = forget something you are
supposed to do
Chris forgot to tell you that he was going away for the
weekend.
regret + -ing form = regret something that has already
happened
Chelsea regretted talking to her sister like that.
regret + full infinitive = be sorry to do something
We regret to inform you that there are no more tickets for
tomorrow’s football match.
stop + -ing form = terminate an action and no longer
do it after that time
Stop making up excuses all the time.
stop + full infinitive = pause temporarily in order to do
something else
I was writing a letter but I stopped to answer the phone.
Making Deductions
• must + base form expresses certainty that something is
true.
My father must be at work now.
• can’t + base form expresses belief that something is
impossible.
You can’t be serious.
• must + have + past participle expresses certainty that
something happened in the past.
I must have left my wallet at home.
• can’t/couldn’t + have + past participle express certainty
that something didn’t happen.
You can’t/couldn’t have met their parents. They live in the UK.
Question Tags
Question tags are short questions placed at the end of a
statement. They are formed with an auxiliary verb and
a personal pronoun. We use them when we are not sure
about something or when we are asking for confirmation.
• If the statement is positive, then the question tag is
negative.
You spoke to Tom yesterday, didn’t you?
• If the statement is negative, then the question tag is
positive.
You aren’t coming to school tomorrow, are you?
Note the following question tags:
• I am your best friend, aren’t I?
• Let’s do something together tonight, shall we?
• Open the window, will/can/could you?
• Don’t forget to call me, will you?
• Somebody is at the door, aren’t they?
• Nobody is home, are they?
Reported Speech (Statements)
In Direct Speech, we repeat the exact words that someone
said. We usually use the verb say and the words of the
speaker are put in quotation marks.
Irina said, ‘Tina is on the phone.’
-ing forms
The -ing form is used:
• as a noun (subject or object of a verb).
Exercising is a good way of keeping fit.
• after the verb go, indicating physical activities.
We often go fishing in the summer.
• after certain verbs (avoid, enjoy, finish, like, love, hate,
imagine, keep, risk, spend (time), suggest, consider, etc.).
Martin suggested going to the museum on Friday.
• after certain expressions (be interested in, can’t stand,
don’t mind, how about, it’s no use, it’s no good, it’s
worth, there’s no point (in), be used to, etc.).
It’s no use trying to do everything yourself. Ask Ethan for
help.
• after prepositions (for, about, without, etc.).
I’m so excited about going to university next year.
136
In Reported Speech, we report the meaning of what
someone said, without using their exact words. We use a
reporting verb, usually say or tell, followed by that
(which can be omitted) and the reported statement.
Irina said that Tina was on the phone.
• We use say when there is no indirect object.
‘I can’t fix the car,’ he said.
He said that he couldn’t fix the car.
• We use tell when there is an indirect object.
‘I’ll be late, Tom,’ he said.
He told Tom he would be late.
NOTE
• When we change a sentence from Direct to Reported
Speech, pronouns and possessive adjectives change
according to the meaning of the sentence.
‘I like your new bike,’ said Ian.
Ian said that he liked my new bike.
• When a sentence changes from Direct to Reported
Speech, tenses, modals and time expressions change as
follows:
Present Simple Ô Past Simple
Eddie said, ‘I want to buy a new car.’
Eddie said (that) he wanted to buy a new car.
Present Progressive Ô Past Progressive
Alan said, ‘I’m having a shower.’
Alan said he was having a shower.
Past Simple Ô Past Perfect Simple
Lars said, ‘I saw a bear behind the tree.’
Lars said he had seen a bear behind the tree.
Present Perfect Simple Ô Past Perfect Simple
Tim said, ‘I’ve seen the Loch Ness monster.’
Tim said he had seen the Loch Ness monster.
Present Perfect Progressive Ô Past Perfect Progressive
Andy said, ‘I’ve been waiting for an hour.’
Andy said he had been waiting for an hour.
will Ô would
Dan said, ‘I’ll call you later.’
Dan said he would call me later.
can Ô could
Mike said, ‘I can show you the way.’
Mike said he could show me the way.
Conditional Sentences Type 1 Ô Conditional Sentences
Type 2
Diane said, ‘If we take a taxi, we’ll get there quicker.’
Diane said if they took a taxi, they would get there quicker.
may Ô might
Paul said, ‘I may go to Brazil.’
Paul said he might go to Brazil.
must Ô had to
Jim said, ‘You must work hard.’
Jim said I had to work hard.
• These changes cannot be made when the sentence
expresses a general truth or the reporting verb is in
the Present, Future or Present Perfect Simple.
‘I enjoy cooking,’ Cindy said.
Cindy said (that) she enjoys cooking.
‘I will move to Dublin next year,’ Eric says.
Eric says he will move to Dublin next year.
• The Past Perfect and the verbs could, might, should,
would and used to do not change in Reported Speech.
• The Past Progressive usually doesn’t change but
when it does, it changes to Past Perfect Progressive.
• Conditional Sentences Types 2 and 3 do not change
in Reported Speech.
NOTE
Special Introductory Verbs
There are a number of special introductory verbs used in
Reported Speech.
• verb + full infinitive (agree, claim, demand, offer,
promise, refuse, threaten, etc.)
‘I’ll help you,’ said Patty.
Patty offered to help me.
• verb + object + full infinitive (advise, allow, ask, beg,
encourage, forbid, invite, order, permit, remind, warn, etc.)
‘You should take better care of yourself, Ivana,’ said Gina.
Gina advised Ivana to take better care of herself.
now Ô then
Mark said, ‘I’ll talk to him now!’
Mark said he would talk to him then.
today, tonight Ô that day, that night
Tom said, ‘We’re meeting Tim today.’
Tom said they were meeting Tim that day.
yesterday Ô the previous day / the day before
Danny said, ‘I visited my lawyer yesterday.’
Danny said he had visited his lawyer the previous day.
this morning/year, etc. Ô that morning/year, etc.
Mary said, ‘I haven’t eaten anything since this morning.’
Mary said she hadn’t eaten anything since that morning.
here Ô there
Eric said, ‘I saw it here.’
Eric said he had seen it there.
tomorrow Ô the next day / the following day
Steve said, ‘I’m flying to Paris tomorrow.’
Steve said he was flying to Paris the following day.
ago Ô before
Ben said, ‘I bought this car two days ago.’
Ben said he had bought that car two days before.
last week/month, etc. Ô the previous week/month, etc.
the week/month, etc. before
Dave said, ‘I called Ted last week.’
Dave said that he had called Ted the previous week.
next week / month, etc. Ô the following week/ month, etc.
Gary said, ‘I’ll return the book next week.’
Gary said he would return the book the following week.
137
Clauses of Result
• We use Clauses of Result to express the result of an
action or a conclusion.
• so + adjective/adverb + (that)
He was so ill (that) he left work early.
• such + (a/an) + (adjective) + noun + (that)
It was such a hot day that we all went swimming.
• We say so + much/many, but such a lot of.
• That can be omitted, especially in spoken English.
NOTE
• When the request is in question form, in Reported
Speech it changes to full infinitive.
‘Will you open the door, please?’ Vicky said.
Vicky asked me to open the door.
NOTE
Present Simple Past Simple
I am called
Are you called?
They aren’t called
I was called
Were you called?
They weren’t called
Present Perfect Simple Past Perfect Simple
I’ve been called
Have you been called?
You haven’t been called
I’d been called
Had you been called?
They hadn’t been called
Future Will Modal Verbs
I’ll be called
Will you be called?
They won’t be called
I can be called
Should you be called?
They mustn’t be called
NOTE Irregular verbs page 142.
Passive Voice II
We form the Progressive tenses in the Passive Voice with
the appropriate form of the verb be + being + the past
participle of the main verb.
Passive Voice I
Use
We use the Passive Voice to emphasise an action rather
than who or what is responsible for it.
Formation
The Passive Voice is formed with the verb be + the past
participle of the main verb.
The person who causes or carries out the action is
called an agent and is preceded by the preposition
by.
We usually omit the agent:
• when the action interests us more than the agent.
• when we don’t know the agent.
• when it is easy to figure out who the agent is.
The bank was robbed! (by someone who we do not know)
English is spoken in Australia. (by people)
NOTE
Present Progressive Past Progressive
I am being called
Are you being called?
They aren’t being called
I was being called
Were you being called?
They weren’t being called
• The verbs make, see, hear, etc. are followed by a bare
infinitive in the Active Voice but in the Passive Voice
they are followed by a full infinitive.
My mum made me eat the whole soup.
I was made to eat the whole soup.
Reported Speech (Commands and Requests)
• We commonly use tell, command, advise, warn or order when
we report commands and ask when we report requests.
• The Imperative changes to full infinitive or not + full infinitive.
‘Sit down, Rex,’ said Dan. Ô Dan told Rex to sit down.
‘Don’t tell anyone, please,’ Ben said. Ô Ben asked me not to
tell anyone.
Reported Speech (Questions)
• We usually introduce reported questions with the
reporting verbs ask, wonder and the expression want to
know.
• The verbs in reported questions are in the affirmative
form.
‘Why did you go to the doctor?’ he asked.
He asked me why I had gone to the doctor.
• If the direct question begins with a question word, the
reported question also begins with the same question word.
‘Where are you going?’ she asked.
She asked me where I was going.
• If the direct question does not begin with a question
word, the reported question begins with if or whether.
‘Did you enjoy the meal?’ he asked.
He asked me if/whether I had enjoyed the meal.
• When we change questions from Direct to Reported
Speech, pronouns, tenses, adverbs, etc. change in the
same way as in reported statements.
• verb + -ing form (accuse sb of, apologise for, admit
(to), complain to sb about, deny, insist on, suggest, etc.)
‘George lied to me,’ said Cyril.
Cyril accused George of lying to him.
• verb + that clause (admit, agree, claim, complain,
exclaim, explain, inform sb, promise, suggest, etc.)
‘You never listen to me,’ he said.
He complained that I never listened to him.
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Unreal Past I
Sometimes we use the Past Simple when referring to the
present or future. This is called the Unreal Past.
• We use wish / if only + Past Simple to make a wish
about a present or future situation which we would like
to be different.
I wish you didn’t have to go tomorrow. (= But you have to).
I wish I had a bigger house. (= But I don’t).
• We use wish / if only + could + bare infinitive to
express regret about something we cannot do at
present.
I wish I could speak Italian.
I wish I could come with you on Friday.
• We use would rather + Past Simple to say that we
would prefer somebody to do or not do something
(the subject of would rather must be different from the
subject of the main verb).
I’d rather you didn’t use my phone.
• We use it’s time + Past Simple to complain, criticise or
express what we think should be done.
It’s time you went to bed.
• We use as if / as though + Past Simple for untrue
situations.
He speaks as if he were an expert. (He is not.)
Clauses of Concession
• We use Clauses of Concession to express contrast or
opposition to the main clause.
• although / even though + subject + verb
Although/Even though he was starving, he didn’t take any
of the food they offered him.
• in spite of / despite + noun / -ing form / what...
Despite the heavy rain, it was very hot.
In spite of feeling afraid, Jim went on the roller coaster.
Despite what you may think, that’s not the case.
• in spite of / despite + the fact + that-clause
He went to school in spite of/despite the fact that he had a
terrible headache.
Unreal Past II
• We use wish / if only + Past Perfect Simple to express
regret about something that happened or didn’t happen
in the past.
I wish I had taken a torch with me. I can’t see a thing.
• We use would rather / as if / as though + Past Perfect
Simple to refer to the past.
I’d rather you had informed me earlier.
He talked to us as if he had known us for years.
Conditional Sentences Type 3
Conditional Sentences Type 3 are used:
• to talk about unreal or imaginary situations in the past.
If I had been offered the job, I would have taken it.
• to express regret.
If I hadn’t gone to bed so late last night, I would have
woken up on time this morning.
• to criticise somebody/something.
If you had completed your degree, you might have found
a better job.
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