Plant-based remedies used in human and animal medicine
Determining the in vivo Efficacy of Extracts and Isolated Compounds
An indication of the in vivo efficacy of plant extracts and isolated compounds show-
ing in vitro activity is necessary to take into account factors that are not present in
the assays used to test activity in vitro, such as metabolic activation of the plant con-
stituents. We have developed procedures to test the effectiveness of plant extracts
5.18 Determining the in vivo Efficacy of Extracts and Isolated Compounds 117
on healing skin infections caused by bacteria [92] and fungi (P Masoko, personal
communication).
To date one of these extracts has found some application in the herbal medicine
market. The issue of in vivo toxicity is also important, as cell-based assays detecting
cytotoxic effects are not sufficient to indicate toxic effects of ingested or topically
applied medications. The avenue of investigating in vivo efficacy of plant extract
preparations and isolated active compounds is a major area of future exploration
for the Phytomedicine Programme.
Plant-based remedies used in human and animal medicine are an essential part of
the primary health care system in South Africa, especially with regard to common-
ly encountered infectious diseases. Antibiotic resistance and the incidence of side
effects in currently used drugs are additional factors leading scientists to the plant
world in the search for new anti-infective agents. Ethnobotanical and ethnoveteri-
nary leads can provide valuable information on potentially highly active plant ex-
tracts. We have recently had success also with a random selection tree screening
project, which has highlighted several antibacterial and antifungal plant extracts
that have no history of human medicinal use. The chemotaxonomic approach us-
ing members of the family Combretaceae as a starting point for antibacterial, anti-
fungal, and other bioactivity investigations, has also proved successful, resulting in
the detection and isolation of many active compounds. It is important to bear in
mind that while activity in vitro does not necessarily verify the efficacy of a plant ex-
tract, it does provide a preliminary indication of the usefulness and potential toxic-
ity of the plant [3].
Natural products research has clearly shown that natural products represent an
incomparable source of molecular diversity. It is time-consuming to isolate and
identify active components from extracts, but biologically active extracts can be ex-
tremely useful in their entirety, taking into account synergistic and other effects.
The approval as drugs of standardized and formulated plant extracts might be the
starting point in developing countries of a successful pharmaceutical industry
which can compete with the Western pharmaceutical companies for the treatment
of a range of diseases [93].
In this chapter we have highlighted some of the research being carried out in the
field of antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic investigations of plant extracts.
Unavoidably, we have concentrated in this brief review on the work performed in
our own Phytomedicine research group at the University of Pretoria, but would
like to acknowledge the world-class research emanating from the many botanical
and other centers and institutes around the country. It is clear that South Africa,
with its bountiful biological diversity and active research groups, has much to offer
regarding the management of infectious diseases and phytomedicine in general.
118 5 Plant Extracts Used to Manage Bacterial, Fungal, and Parasitic Infections in Southern Africa
References
References 119
1 George, J., Laing, M.D., Drewes, S.E. S.
Afr. J. Sci. 2001, 97, 93–105.
2 Van Wyk, B-E. S. Afr. J. Bot. 2002, 68,
1–13.
3 Fennell, C.W., Lindsey, K.L., McGaw, L.J.,
Sparg, S.G., Stafford, G.I., Elgorashi, E.E.,
Grace, O.M., van Staden, J. J.
Ethnopharmacol. 2004, 94, 205–217.
4 Light, M.E., Sparg, S.G., Stafford, G.I.,
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100, 127–130.
5 Germishuizen, G., Meyer, N.L. Plants of
Southern Africa, An Annotated Check List.
Strelitzia 14, iv. National Botanical
Institute, Pretoria, 2003.
6 Klopper, R.R., Smith, G.F., Gautier, L.,
Chatelain, C., Spichiger, R. The African
Plant Checklist and Database Project.
Programme and Abstracts, pp. 93–94,
Conference South African Association for
Botanists, Port Elizabeth, January, 2006.
7 Farnsworth, N.F. The role of medicinal
plants in drug development. In Natural
Products and Drug Development,
Krogsgaard-Larsen, P., Brogger
Christensen, L., Kofold, H. (eds).
Munksgaard, Copenhagen, 1984, pp.
17–28.
8 O’Neill, M.J., Lewis, J.A. The renaissance
of plant research in the pharmaceutical
industry. In Human Medicinal Agents from
Plants, Kinghorn, A.D., Balandrin, M.F.
(eds). ACS Symposium Series 534.
American Chemical Society, Washington,
DC, 1993, pp. 48–55.
9 Van Wyk, B-E., van Oudtshoorn, B.,
Gericke. N. Medicinal Plants of South
Africa. Briza Publications, Pretoria, 1997.
10 Mander, M. The Marketing of Indigenous
Medicinal Plants in South Africa, A Case
Study in KwaZulu–Natal. Forest Products
Marketing Programme, FAO, Rome,
1998.
11 Arnold, T.H., Prentice, C.A., Hawker,
L.C., Snyman, E.E., Tomalin, M., Crouch,
N.R., Pottas-Bircher, C. Medicinal and
Magical Plants of Southern Africa, an
Annotated Checklist. Strelitzia 13, 89.
National Botanical Institute, Pretoria,
2002.
12 Cunningham, A.B., Zondi, A.S. Cattle
Owners and Traditional Medicines Used for
Livestock. Investigational Report No. 69,
Institute of Natural Resources,
Pietermaritzburg, 1991.
13 Mathias, E., McCorkle, C.M., Schillhorn
van Veen, T.W. Introduction,
ethnoveterinary research and
development. In Ethnoveterinary Research
and Development, McCorkle, C.M.,
Mathias, E., Schillhorn van Veen, T.W.
(eds). Intermediate Technology
Publications, London. 1996.
14 WHO Scientific Working Group. Bull.
World Health Org. 1996, 71, 335–336.
15 Watt, J.M., Breyer-Brandwijk, M.G. The
Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern
and Eastern Africa, 2nd edn. Livingstone,
London, 1962.
16 Hutchings, A., Scott, A.H., Lewis, G.,
Cunningham, A.B. Zulu Medicinal Plants,
an Inventory. University of Natal Press,
Pietermaritzburg., 1996.
17 Van Wyk, B-E., Gericke, N. People’s Plants,
a Guide to Useful Plants of Southern Africa.
Briza Publications, Pretoria, 2000.
18 Masika, P.J., Van Averbeke, W., Sonandi,
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20 Van der Merwe, D., Swan, G.E., Botha,
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189–196.
21 Eloff, J.N. S. Afr. J. Sci. 1999, 95, 148–152.
22 Martini, N.D., Eloff, J.N. J.
Ethnopharmacol. 1998, 62, 255–263.
23 Eloff, J.N, Jager, A.K., van Staden, J. S.
Afr. J. Sci. 2001, 97, 291–293.
24 McGaw, L.J., Rabe, T., Sparg, S.G., Jager,
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27 Masoko, P., Picard, J., Eloff, J.N. J.
Ethnopharmacol. 2005, 99, 301–308.
28 Balick, M.J. Ethnobotany, drug
development and biodiversity
conservation-exploring the linkages. In
Ethnobotany and the Search for New Drugs,
Prance, G.T. (ed.). Ciba Foundation
Symposium 185, Wiley, Chichester, 1994,
pp. 4–24.
120 5 Plant Extracts Used to Manage Bacterial, Fungal, and Parasitic Infections in Southern Africa
29 Katerere, D.R., Eloff, J.N. S. Afr. J. Bot.
2004, 70, 303–305.
30 Naidoo, V., Katerere, D.R., Swan, G.E.,
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31 Eloff, J.N. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1999, 67,
355–360.
32 Eloff, J.N. S. Afr. J. Bot. 1998, 64, 209–212.
33 Eloff, J.N. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1998, 60,
1–8.
34 Malone, M.H. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1983, 8,
127–147.
35 Williamson, E.M. Phytomedicine 2001, 8,
401–409.
36 Zishiri, V.K. Potentising and application
of a Combretum woodii leaf extract with
high antibacterial and antioxidant activity.
MSc thesis, University of Pretoria, 2005.
37 Eloff, J.N. Phytomedicine 2004, 11,
370–371.
38 Eloff, J.N. S. Afr. J. Bot. 2003, 69, 603–604.
39 Eloff, J.N. Planta Med. 1998, 64, 711–713.
40 Sacho, H., Schoub, D.B. Current
Perspectives on Nosocomial Infections.
Pietermaritzburg, Natal Witness Printing
and Publishing, 1993.
41 Begue, W.J., Kline, R.M. J. Chromatogr.
1972, 64, 182–184.
42 Beukes, S. In vitro antimicrobial activity
of phytomedicine against acidogenic oral
bacteria. MSc thesis, University of
Pretoria, 2004.
43 Masoko, P., Eloff, J.N. Afr. J. Biotechnol.
2005, 4, 1425–1431.
44 Eloff, J.N. S. Afr. J. Sci. 2000, 96, 116–118.
45 Hamburger, M.O., Cordell, G.A. J. Nat.
Prod. 1987, 50, 19–22.
46 NCCLS. Performance Standards for
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Document M2–A4. The National
Committee for Clinical Laboratory
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Determining the in vivo Efficacy of Extracts and Isolated Compounds
An indication of the in vivo efficacy of plant extracts and isolated compounds show-
ing in vitro activity is necessary to take into account factors that are not present in
the assays used to test activity in vitro, such as metabolic activation of the plant con-
stituents. We have developed procedures to test the effectiveness of plant extracts
5.18 Determining the in vivo Efficacy of Extracts and Isolated Compounds 117
on healing skin infections caused by bacteria [92] and fungi (P Masoko, personal
communication).
To date one of these extracts has found some application in the herbal medicine
market. The issue of in vivo toxicity is also important, as cell-based assays detecting
cytotoxic effects are not sufficient to indicate toxic effects of ingested or topically
applied medications. The avenue of investigating in vivo efficacy of plant extract
preparations and isolated active compounds is a major area of future exploration
for the Phytomedicine Programme.
Plant-based remedies used in human and animal medicine are an essential part of
the primary health care system in South Africa, especially with regard to common-
ly encountered infectious diseases. Antibiotic resistance and the incidence of side
effects in currently used drugs are additional factors leading scientists to the plant
world in the search for new anti-infective agents. Ethnobotanical and ethnoveteri-
nary leads can provide valuable information on potentially highly active plant ex-
tracts. We have recently had success also with a random selection tree screening
project, which has highlighted several antibacterial and antifungal plant extracts
that have no history of human medicinal use. The chemotaxonomic approach us-
ing members of the family Combretaceae as a starting point for antibacterial, anti-
fungal, and other bioactivity investigations, has also proved successful, resulting in
the detection and isolation of many active compounds. It is important to bear in
mind that while activity in vitro does not necessarily verify the efficacy of a plant ex-
tract, it does provide a preliminary indication of the usefulness and potential toxic-
ity of the plant [3].
Natural products research has clearly shown that natural products represent an
incomparable source of molecular diversity. It is time-consuming to isolate and
identify active components from extracts, but biologically active extracts can be ex-
tremely useful in their entirety, taking into account synergistic and other effects.
The approval as drugs of standardized and formulated plant extracts might be the
starting point in developing countries of a successful pharmaceutical industry
which can compete with the Western pharmaceutical companies for the treatment
of a range of diseases [93].
In this chapter we have highlighted some of the research being carried out in the
field of antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic investigations of plant extracts.
Unavoidably, we have concentrated in this brief review on the work performed in
our own Phytomedicine research group at the University of Pretoria, but would
like to acknowledge the world-class research emanating from the many botanical
and other centers and institutes around the country. It is clear that South Africa,
with its bountiful biological diversity and active research groups, has much to offer
regarding the management of infectious diseases and phytomedicine in general.
118 5 Plant Extracts Used to Manage Bacterial, Fungal, and Parasitic Infections in Southern Africa
References
References 119
1 George, J., Laing, M.D., Drewes, S.E. S.
Afr. J. Sci. 2001, 97, 93–105.
2 Van Wyk, B-E. S. Afr. J. Bot. 2002, 68,
1–13.
3 Fennell, C.W., Lindsey, K.L., McGaw, L.J.,
Sparg, S.G., Stafford, G.I., Elgorashi, E.E.,
Grace, O.M., van Staden, J. J.
Ethnopharmacol. 2004, 94, 205–217.
4 Light, M.E., Sparg, S.G., Stafford, G.I.,
van Staden, J. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2005,
100, 127–130.
5 Germishuizen, G., Meyer, N.L. Plants of
Southern Africa, An Annotated Check List.
Strelitzia 14, iv. National Botanical
Institute, Pretoria, 2003.
6 Klopper, R.R., Smith, G.F., Gautier, L.,
Chatelain, C., Spichiger, R. The African
Plant Checklist and Database Project.
Programme and Abstracts, pp. 93–94,
Conference South African Association for
Botanists, Port Elizabeth, January, 2006.
7 Farnsworth, N.F. The role of medicinal
plants in drug development. In Natural
Products and Drug Development,
Krogsgaard-Larsen, P., Brogger
Christensen, L., Kofold, H. (eds).
Munksgaard, Copenhagen, 1984, pp.
17–28.
8 O’Neill, M.J., Lewis, J.A. The renaissance
of plant research in the pharmaceutical
industry. In Human Medicinal Agents from
Plants, Kinghorn, A.D., Balandrin, M.F.
(eds). ACS Symposium Series 534.
American Chemical Society, Washington,
DC, 1993, pp. 48–55.
9 Van Wyk, B-E., van Oudtshoorn, B.,
Gericke. N. Medicinal Plants of South
Africa. Briza Publications, Pretoria, 1997.
10 Mander, M. The Marketing of Indigenous
Medicinal Plants in South Africa, A Case
Study in KwaZulu–Natal. Forest Products
Marketing Programme, FAO, Rome,
1998.
11 Arnold, T.H., Prentice, C.A., Hawker,
L.C., Snyman, E.E., Tomalin, M., Crouch,
N.R., Pottas-Bircher, C. Medicinal and
Magical Plants of Southern Africa, an
Annotated Checklist. Strelitzia 13, 89.
National Botanical Institute, Pretoria,
2002.
12 Cunningham, A.B., Zondi, A.S. Cattle
Owners and Traditional Medicines Used for
Livestock. Investigational Report No. 69,
Institute of Natural Resources,
Pietermaritzburg, 1991.
13 Mathias, E., McCorkle, C.M., Schillhorn
van Veen, T.W. Introduction,
ethnoveterinary research and
development. In Ethnoveterinary Research
and Development, McCorkle, C.M.,
Mathias, E., Schillhorn van Veen, T.W.
(eds). Intermediate Technology
Publications, London. 1996.
14 WHO Scientific Working Group. Bull.
World Health Org. 1996, 71, 335–336.
15 Watt, J.M., Breyer-Brandwijk, M.G. The
Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern
and Eastern Africa, 2nd edn. Livingstone,
London, 1962.
16 Hutchings, A., Scott, A.H., Lewis, G.,
Cunningham, A.B. Zulu Medicinal Plants,
an Inventory. University of Natal Press,
Pietermaritzburg., 1996.
17 Van Wyk, B-E., Gericke, N. People’s Plants,
a Guide to Useful Plants of Southern Africa.
Briza Publications, Pretoria, 2000.
18 Masika, P.J., Van Averbeke, W., Sonandi,
A. J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 2000, 71, 87–91.
19 Masika, P.J., Afolayan, A.J. Pharm. Biol.
2002, 41, 16–21.
20 Van der Merwe, D., Swan, G.E., Botha,
C.J. J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 2001, 72,
189–196.
21 Eloff, J.N. S. Afr. J. Sci. 1999, 95, 148–152.
22 Martini, N.D., Eloff, J.N. J.
Ethnopharmacol. 1998, 62, 255–263.
23 Eloff, J.N, Jager, A.K., van Staden, J. S.
Afr. J. Sci. 2001, 97, 291–293.
24 McGaw, L.J., Rabe, T., Sparg, S.G., Jager,
A.K., Eloff, J.N., van Staden, J. J.
Ethnopharmacol. 2001, 75, 45–50.
25 Kotze, M., Eloff, J.N. S. Afr. J. Bot. 2002,
68, 62–67.
26 Martini, N.D., Katerere, D.R.P., Eloff, J.N.
J. Ethnopharmacol. 2004, 93, 207–212.
27 Masoko, P., Picard, J., Eloff, J.N. J.
Ethnopharmacol. 2005, 99, 301–308.
28 Balick, M.J. Ethnobotany, drug
development and biodiversity
conservation-exploring the linkages. In
Ethnobotany and the Search for New Drugs,
Prance, G.T. (ed.). Ciba Foundation
Symposium 185, Wiley, Chichester, 1994,
pp. 4–24.
120 5 Plant Extracts Used to Manage Bacterial, Fungal, and Parasitic Infections in Southern Africa
29 Katerere, D.R., Eloff, J.N. S. Afr. J. Bot.
2004, 70, 303–305.
30 Naidoo, V., Katerere, D.R., Swan, G.E.,
Eloff, J.N. Pharm. Biol. 2004, 42, 529–533.
31 Eloff, J.N. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1999, 67,
355–360.
32 Eloff, J.N. S. Afr. J. Bot. 1998, 64, 209–212.
33 Eloff, J.N. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1998, 60,
1–8.
34 Malone, M.H. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1983, 8,
127–147.
35 Williamson, E.M. Phytomedicine 2001, 8,
401–409.
36 Zishiri, V.K. Potentising and application
of a Combretum woodii leaf extract with
high antibacterial and antioxidant activity.
MSc thesis, University of Pretoria, 2005.
37 Eloff, J.N. Phytomedicine 2004, 11,
370–371.
38 Eloff, J.N. S. Afr. J. Bot. 2003, 69, 603–604.
39 Eloff, J.N. Planta Med. 1998, 64, 711–713.
40 Sacho, H., Schoub, D.B. Current
Perspectives on Nosocomial Infections.
Pietermaritzburg, Natal Witness Printing
and Publishing, 1993.
41 Begue, W.J., Kline, R.M. J. Chromatogr.
1972, 64, 182–184.
42 Beukes, S. In vitro antimicrobial activity
of phytomedicine against acidogenic oral
bacteria. MSc thesis, University of
Pretoria, 2004.
43 Masoko, P., Eloff, J.N. Afr. J. Biotechnol.
2005, 4, 1425–1431.
44 Eloff, J.N. S. Afr. J. Sci. 2000, 96, 116–118.
45 Hamburger, M.O., Cordell, G.A. J. Nat.
Prod. 1987, 50, 19–22.
46 NCCLS. Performance Standards for
Antimicrobial Disk Susceptibility Tests, 4th
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