Born to Talk
unlike other aspects of
human evolution where
we have fossil evidence,
it is difficult to know with any
certainty how language began.
‘The archaeological records
are extremely scant and highly
ambiguous where they exist’,
says linguist Derek Bickerton. ‘Our
knowledge of how the brain produces
language is still in its infancy.’
For decades, the work of Massachusetts Institute of
Technology linguist Noam Chomsky was the final
word on the subject. He said that humans are born
with an innate ability for language - our brains were
hard-wired to do it. Chomsky stands by this view
today. ‘I’ve never heard of a coherent alternative,’ he
says. Psychologist Steven Pinker also broadly shares
this view, comparing human language with the
instinct in spiders to make webs.
But S. Kirby, D. Falk and a range of other scientists
from various disciplines are now challenging the
orthodox thinking. ‘Pinker would say language
is the way it is because we are born with a set of
mechanisms, or organs, that allow us to learn
language,’ Kirby says. ‘It is an entirely reasonable
explanation, but I would say it ignores something
important. Language doesn’t spring fully from any
kind of biological faculty that we have. The language
we’re speaking now is a product of us both being
exposed to English growing up. It’s an obvious fact
that Pinker wouldn’t disagree with, but actually it has
some profound implications.’
Kirby believes language has adapted to us, through
a process of cultural transmission through the
generations. In other words, language has adapted
because it is good for language, rather than because we
are biologically adapted for it. This is a way of thinking
that, metaphorically at least, lets us visualise language
as an organism, which has gone through the normal
processes of natural selection to survive.
Not everyone is convinced by this
argument, however. ‘Language
as a whole is not hard-wired,’
says Bickerton, ‘but some
aspects of it are. The range
of possibilities from which a
language chooses its speech
sounds and the basic processes
of syntax are innate in the sense
that the first comes from specifics
of human anatomy and the second from
the particular way the brain is wired up and
operates. Though there is no such thing as a ‘language
organ’, syntax is just what happens when a fairly
advanced brain has to deal with words.’
But where did those words come from? How did we
develop such a perfect system of communication, in
which someone can speak a sentence that has never
been said before and yet still be perfectly understood?
‘The last ten years have seen an extraordinary
explosion of interest,’ says Kirby. ‘It’s a really striking
and exciting time to be in this area.’ But don’t hold
your breath on easy answers anytime soon. ‘It is a long
road we are on. And we’re just getting started.’
42
B. Choose the word or phrase that produces a grammatically correct sentence.
EXAMINATION PRAC TICE
1. What is said about language in the second paragraph?
a. Fossil evidence is bound to play an invaluable role in
revealing its origins.
b. The abundance of archaeological records is providing
much needed insight on its origins.
c. It’s the only aspect of human evolution the origins of
which we know nothing about.
d. We lack both the knowledge and the evidence required
to reach a definite conclusion on its origins.
2. What do we learn about Noam Chomsky?
a. He is currently reconsidering his long-held views on
language.
b. His work on language was unchallenged for many
years.
c. He believed that man’s ability for language developed
over time.
d. He compared man’s instinctive ability for language to a
spider’s web-making ability.
3. What is true of S. Kirby?
a. He entirely rejects long-standing theories concerning
language.
b. He has conducted research that confirmed his beliefs
on language and its users.
c. He finds another scientist’s justification plausible but
feels that an important fact is being overlooked.
d. He maintains that language is derived exclusively from
a particular source.
4. Language is, in accordance to Kirby,
a. incapable of undergoing any form of transition.
b. highly adaptive, which works to its benefit.
c. in no way connected to culture.
d. not the product of evolution.
5. Bickerton
a. is not in total agreement with Kirby’s theory on
language.
b. supports Chomsky’s theory on language without
reservation.
c. believes that a ‘language organ’ is responsible for the
production of language.
d. supports that the way our brain is wired up limits the
range of language we use.
6. What conclusion do we reach upon reading the passage?
a. Pinpointing the origins of language is a complicated
task.
b. It is a matter of time until we discover the origins of
language.
c. The complexity of the issue has resulted in a gradual
dwindling of interest.
d. There is general consensus as to where to look for
answers.
1. If greenhouse gases continue to increase, natural disasters inevitable.
a. would be b. must be c. will be d. should be
2. If you mix hydrogen and oxygen, you water.
a. would get b. must get c. get d. might get
3. Our weightlifting champion didn’t win because he was heavier than his opponent.
a. too b. less c. slightly d. rather
4. If the weather was a little warmer, we for a swim.
a. went b. could go c. can go d. go
5. Her new coat is the garment in her wardrobe.
a. more expensive b. much expensive c. most expensive d. very expensive
6. You must pay an admission fee unless you under the age of ten.
a. are b. will be c. were d. would be
7. If I were you, I investing all my money in that new company.
a. could avoid b. will avoid c. could avoid d. would avoid
8. I don’t really know any other place as the Sahara Desert.
a. as hot b. a lot hot c. slightly hotter d. far too hot
9. If I inherited a lot of money, I some of it to charity.
a. will give b. give c. would give d. shall give
10. Visiting an archaeological site as visiting a museum.
a. isn’t too interesting b. isn’t as much interesting c. isn’t much interesting d. isn’t so interesting
43
vocabulary
A. Complete the sentences with the words in the box.
immense sumptuous orbit cradle opulence
B. Match the words 1-6 with the synonyms/definitions a-f. Then use the words 1-6 to complete the sentences below.
1. He is an extremely difficult person as he refuses to .
2. The house was built right on the beach and when the tide came in, the water would its walls.
3. Miami is a city which is full of people, restaurants and attractions.
4. He comes from Syria and takes great pride in his .
5. He’s very strict with himself when it comes to his diet; his only is a piece of chocolate.
6. The harbour proved a for the boats caught in the storm.
7. The village is located up in the mountains, a perfect place for finding peace and in nature.
1. Being a successful businessman, John can afford to live in a(n) home on the outskirts of town.
2. We were given a tour of the palace and were able to admire its and splendour.
3. Wall Street in New York City is considered by many to be the of the stock market.
4. The first satellite to the Earth was launched in 1957.
5. After the explosion at a petrol station, a(n) cloud of smoke rose in the sky.
A
1. serene
2. bustling
3. diversity
4. sustain
5. creak
6. idyllic
B
a. variety
b. to keep
c. charming
d. peaceful
e. busy, full of activity
f. to make a high-pitched noise
1. The main attraction of this city is the market where you can see hundreds of people buying and
selling products.
2. If he wants to his expensive lifestyle, he will have to get a second job.
3. After an hour’s walk in the woods, they found a(n) spot for a picnic.
4. There is a great of shops in this city so you are sure to find what you are looking for.
5. Put some oil on the hinges of the door so that it won’t .
6. When he heard the terrible news, I thought he would get angry and start yelling but he was calm and .
C. Match the words 1-7 with the synonyms/definitions a-g. Then use the words 1-7 to complete the sentences below.
A
1. indulgence
2. vibrant
3. heritage
4. tranquility
5. lap
6. haven
7. compromise
B
a. calm
b. energetic
c. to reach an agreement
d. luxury
e. shelter
f. inheritance, tradition
g. to splash
44
vocabulary
A. Form prepositional phrases by putting the prepositions in the box before the phrases a-f.
within
off
in
on
at
a. walking distance
b. the beaten track
c. my way
d. the middle of nowhere
e. the horizon
f. the top of the hill
1. I was to the airport when I realised I had forgotten my laptop at the reception, where I had
given it for safekeeping.
2. When I go on holiday, I like everything to be so that I don’t waste time getting round.
3. The villa which stood majestically provided us with a panoramic view of the surrounding
area.
4. I’m hoping to find a trekking route that is so that it is not frequented by many backpackers.
5. My car broke down while I was driving through the Empty Quarter Desert.
6. With war , the army made every preparation.
B. Now complete the sentences below using the prepositional phrases from the exercise above.
GRA MMAR
C. Read the text and choose the correct answer a, b or c.
unlike other aspects of
human evolution where
we have fossil evidence,
it is difficult to know with any
certainty how language began.
‘The archaeological records
are extremely scant and highly
ambiguous where they exist’,
says linguist Derek Bickerton. ‘Our
knowledge of how the brain produces
language is still in its infancy.’
For decades, the work of Massachusetts Institute of
Technology linguist Noam Chomsky was the final
word on the subject. He said that humans are born
with an innate ability for language - our brains were
hard-wired to do it. Chomsky stands by this view
today. ‘I’ve never heard of a coherent alternative,’ he
says. Psychologist Steven Pinker also broadly shares
this view, comparing human language with the
instinct in spiders to make webs.
But S. Kirby, D. Falk and a range of other scientists
from various disciplines are now challenging the
orthodox thinking. ‘Pinker would say language
is the way it is because we are born with a set of
mechanisms, or organs, that allow us to learn
language,’ Kirby says. ‘It is an entirely reasonable
explanation, but I would say it ignores something
important. Language doesn’t spring fully from any
kind of biological faculty that we have. The language
we’re speaking now is a product of us both being
exposed to English growing up. It’s an obvious fact
that Pinker wouldn’t disagree with, but actually it has
some profound implications.’
Kirby believes language has adapted to us, through
a process of cultural transmission through the
generations. In other words, language has adapted
because it is good for language, rather than because we
are biologically adapted for it. This is a way of thinking
that, metaphorically at least, lets us visualise language
as an organism, which has gone through the normal
processes of natural selection to survive.
Not everyone is convinced by this
argument, however. ‘Language
as a whole is not hard-wired,’
says Bickerton, ‘but some
aspects of it are. The range
of possibilities from which a
language chooses its speech
sounds and the basic processes
of syntax are innate in the sense
that the first comes from specifics
of human anatomy and the second from
the particular way the brain is wired up and
operates. Though there is no such thing as a ‘language
organ’, syntax is just what happens when a fairly
advanced brain has to deal with words.’
But where did those words come from? How did we
develop such a perfect system of communication, in
which someone can speak a sentence that has never
been said before and yet still be perfectly understood?
‘The last ten years have seen an extraordinary
explosion of interest,’ says Kirby. ‘It’s a really striking
and exciting time to be in this area.’ But don’t hold
your breath on easy answers anytime soon. ‘It is a long
road we are on. And we’re just getting started.’
42
B. Choose the word or phrase that produces a grammatically correct sentence.
EXAMINATION PRAC TICE
1. What is said about language in the second paragraph?
a. Fossil evidence is bound to play an invaluable role in
revealing its origins.
b. The abundance of archaeological records is providing
much needed insight on its origins.
c. It’s the only aspect of human evolution the origins of
which we know nothing about.
d. We lack both the knowledge and the evidence required
to reach a definite conclusion on its origins.
2. What do we learn about Noam Chomsky?
a. He is currently reconsidering his long-held views on
language.
b. His work on language was unchallenged for many
years.
c. He believed that man’s ability for language developed
over time.
d. He compared man’s instinctive ability for language to a
spider’s web-making ability.
3. What is true of S. Kirby?
a. He entirely rejects long-standing theories concerning
language.
b. He has conducted research that confirmed his beliefs
on language and its users.
c. He finds another scientist’s justification plausible but
feels that an important fact is being overlooked.
d. He maintains that language is derived exclusively from
a particular source.
4. Language is, in accordance to Kirby,
a. incapable of undergoing any form of transition.
b. highly adaptive, which works to its benefit.
c. in no way connected to culture.
d. not the product of evolution.
5. Bickerton
a. is not in total agreement with Kirby’s theory on
language.
b. supports Chomsky’s theory on language without
reservation.
c. believes that a ‘language organ’ is responsible for the
production of language.
d. supports that the way our brain is wired up limits the
range of language we use.
6. What conclusion do we reach upon reading the passage?
a. Pinpointing the origins of language is a complicated
task.
b. It is a matter of time until we discover the origins of
language.
c. The complexity of the issue has resulted in a gradual
dwindling of interest.
d. There is general consensus as to where to look for
answers.
1. If greenhouse gases continue to increase, natural disasters inevitable.
a. would be b. must be c. will be d. should be
2. If you mix hydrogen and oxygen, you water.
a. would get b. must get c. get d. might get
3. Our weightlifting champion didn’t win because he was heavier than his opponent.
a. too b. less c. slightly d. rather
4. If the weather was a little warmer, we for a swim.
a. went b. could go c. can go d. go
5. Her new coat is the garment in her wardrobe.
a. more expensive b. much expensive c. most expensive d. very expensive
6. You must pay an admission fee unless you under the age of ten.
a. are b. will be c. were d. would be
7. If I were you, I investing all my money in that new company.
a. could avoid b. will avoid c. could avoid d. would avoid
8. I don’t really know any other place as the Sahara Desert.
a. as hot b. a lot hot c. slightly hotter d. far too hot
9. If I inherited a lot of money, I some of it to charity.
a. will give b. give c. would give d. shall give
10. Visiting an archaeological site as visiting a museum.
a. isn’t too interesting b. isn’t as much interesting c. isn’t much interesting d. isn’t so interesting
43
vocabulary
A. Complete the sentences with the words in the box.
immense sumptuous orbit cradle opulence
B. Match the words 1-6 with the synonyms/definitions a-f. Then use the words 1-6 to complete the sentences below.
1. He is an extremely difficult person as he refuses to .
2. The house was built right on the beach and when the tide came in, the water would its walls.
3. Miami is a city which is full of people, restaurants and attractions.
4. He comes from Syria and takes great pride in his .
5. He’s very strict with himself when it comes to his diet; his only is a piece of chocolate.
6. The harbour proved a for the boats caught in the storm.
7. The village is located up in the mountains, a perfect place for finding peace and in nature.
1. Being a successful businessman, John can afford to live in a(n) home on the outskirts of town.
2. We were given a tour of the palace and were able to admire its and splendour.
3. Wall Street in New York City is considered by many to be the of the stock market.
4. The first satellite to the Earth was launched in 1957.
5. After the explosion at a petrol station, a(n) cloud of smoke rose in the sky.
A
1. serene
2. bustling
3. diversity
4. sustain
5. creak
6. idyllic
B
a. variety
b. to keep
c. charming
d. peaceful
e. busy, full of activity
f. to make a high-pitched noise
1. The main attraction of this city is the market where you can see hundreds of people buying and
selling products.
2. If he wants to his expensive lifestyle, he will have to get a second job.
3. After an hour’s walk in the woods, they found a(n) spot for a picnic.
4. There is a great of shops in this city so you are sure to find what you are looking for.
5. Put some oil on the hinges of the door so that it won’t .
6. When he heard the terrible news, I thought he would get angry and start yelling but he was calm and .
C. Match the words 1-7 with the synonyms/definitions a-g. Then use the words 1-7 to complete the sentences below.
A
1. indulgence
2. vibrant
3. heritage
4. tranquility
5. lap
6. haven
7. compromise
B
a. calm
b. energetic
c. to reach an agreement
d. luxury
e. shelter
f. inheritance, tradition
g. to splash
44
vocabulary
A. Form prepositional phrases by putting the prepositions in the box before the phrases a-f.
within
off
in
on
at
a. walking distance
b. the beaten track
c. my way
d. the middle of nowhere
e. the horizon
f. the top of the hill
1. I was to the airport when I realised I had forgotten my laptop at the reception, where I had
given it for safekeeping.
2. When I go on holiday, I like everything to be so that I don’t waste time getting round.
3. The villa which stood majestically provided us with a panoramic view of the surrounding
area.
4. I’m hoping to find a trekking route that is so that it is not frequented by many backpackers.
5. My car broke down while I was driving through the Empty Quarter Desert.
6. With war , the army made every preparation.
B. Now complete the sentences below using the prepositional phrases from the exercise above.
GRA MMAR
C. Read the text and choose the correct answer a, b or c.
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