Grammar Reference
I have worked He has slept
Have you worked? Has she slept?
They haven’t worked It hasn’t slept
Present Perfect Simple
The Present Perfect Simple is used:
• to talk about an action which happened in the past, but
the exact time is not mentioned.
I’ve already done that.
• to talk about a state which started in the past and
continues up to the present.
Mary has had this mobile phone since September.
• to talk about an action that happened in the past and
finished, but the results are obvious in the present.
I’ve just finished my project.
Tim has washed his car. (it’s clean)
TIME EXPRESSIONS
just, yet, already, ever, never, before, always, how long,
for, since, recently, lately, once, twice, so far, etc.
• We use the Past Simple for actions that were completed
in the past and the exact time is mentioned.
Present Perfect Simple: I have tasted Mexican food.
Past Simple: I tasted Mexican food last night.
• We use for and since for actions that started in the
past and continue up to the present.
for + a period of time
I’ve had this car for 5 years.
since + a point in time
I’ve had this car since 2006.
Present Perfect Simple + since + Past Simple
Julian has changed jobs three times since he came to Luton.
• have been to = have visited and come back
have gone to = have not returned yet
I’ve been to the gym twice this week.
John isn’t here; he’s gone to the gym.
NOTE
I have been working He has been sleeping
Have you been working? Has she been sleeping?
They haven’t been working It hasn’t been sleeping
Present Perfect Progressive
The Present Perfect Progressive is used:
• to emphasise the duration of a state or action which
started in the past and continues up to the present.
I’ve been learning English for 6 years.
• to talk about an action which happened over a period of
time in the past and may have finished, but the results
are obvious in the present.
We’ve been walking around all day. That’s why we’re so tired.
• We use the Present Perfect Simple to emphasise
the result of an action. We use the Present Perfect
Progressive to emphasise the duration of an action.
I’ve called him three times this morning.
I’ve been calling him since 9 o’clock. NOTE
TIME EXPRESSIONS
for, since, how long, all day/week, etc.
Relative Clauses
Relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns (who,
which, that, whose) and relative adverbs (where, when).
Pronouns
PEOPLE who/that
THINGS / ANIMALS /
IDEAS
which/
that
POSSESSION whose
Adverbs
PLACE where
TIME when
should/shouldn’t
We use should/shouldn’t + base form:
• to ask for and give advice.
Should I ask Linda to help me with this?
• to express an opinion.
He should be more careful when he drives.
• to make a suggestion.
You should really go to that new restaurant. It’s fantastic!
• to express mild obligation.
Students should hand in their homework on time.
We use should + have + past participle:
• to express regret about something that didn’t happen in
the past.
We should have come home earlier.
• to criticise somebody’s behaviour.
You should have called me and let me know you weren’t
coming.
NOTE Irregular verbs on page 142.
Defining relative clauses give information which is needed
to understand the meaning of the sentence. They are not
separated from the main clause by commas.
He’s the boy who/that lives next door.
The book (which/that) you bought is on the desk.
Non-defining relative clauses give extra information about
the person, thing or idea they refer to. They are always
separated from the main clause by commas.
Mr Brown, who is our Geography teacher, is quite old.
Our car, which cost us a lot, keeps breaking down.
• Who, which and that can be omitted if they refer to
the object of the sentence. Whose and where cannot
be omitted.
• In formal language prepositions appear at the
beginning of the relative clause.
In informal language they appear at the end of the
relative clause.
The chair on which I’m sitting isn’t very
comfortable. (formal)
The chair (which/that) I am sitting on isn’t very
comfortable. (informal)
NOTE
• Relative pronouns/adverbs cannot be omitted in nondefining
relative clauses; nor can we use that instead of
them.
• Prepositions usually appear at the beginning of nondefining
relative clauses.
This cupboard, in which I keep my old toys, hasn’t been
cleaned for ages.
• Which may also refer to a whole sentence.
He offered to give me a lift, which was very kind of him.
NOTE
133
• The verb ought to can be used instead of should in all
the above cases.
e.g. You ought to have let me know you weren’t coming.
NOTE
had better
We use had better + base form to give strong advice. It often
expresses threat or warning and it’s stronger than should/
ought to. It refers to the present or future, not the past. Its
negative form is had better not. In spoken English the short
form is commonly used (I’d better, you’d better, etc.).
You’d better ask a doctor about it.
We use shouldn’t + have + past participle:
• to express regret about something that happened in the past.
I shouldn’t have shouted at Larry today.
• to criticise something somebody has done.
Danny shouldn’t have told you that. It was supposed to be
a secret.
I’ll work He’ll sleep
Will you work? Will she sleep?
They won’t work It won’t sleep
I have worked He has slept
Have you worked? Has she slept?
They haven’t worked It hasn’t slept
Present Perfect Simple
The Present Perfect Simple is used:
• to talk about an action which happened in the past, but
the exact time is not mentioned.
I’ve already done that.
• to talk about a state which started in the past and
continues up to the present.
Mary has had this mobile phone since September.
• to talk about an action that happened in the past and
finished, but the results are obvious in the present.
I’ve just finished my project.
Tim has washed his car. (it’s clean)
TIME EXPRESSIONS
just, yet, already, ever, never, before, always, how long,
for, since, recently, lately, once, twice, so far, etc.
• We use the Past Simple for actions that were completed
in the past and the exact time is mentioned.
Present Perfect Simple: I have tasted Mexican food.
Past Simple: I tasted Mexican food last night.
• We use for and since for actions that started in the
past and continue up to the present.
for + a period of time
I’ve had this car for 5 years.
since + a point in time
I’ve had this car since 2006.
Present Perfect Simple + since + Past Simple
Julian has changed jobs three times since he came to Luton.
• have been to = have visited and come back
have gone to = have not returned yet
I’ve been to the gym twice this week.
John isn’t here; he’s gone to the gym.
NOTE
I have been working He has been sleeping
Have you been working? Has she been sleeping?
They haven’t been working It hasn’t been sleeping
Present Perfect Progressive
The Present Perfect Progressive is used:
• to emphasise the duration of a state or action which
started in the past and continues up to the present.
I’ve been learning English for 6 years.
• to talk about an action which happened over a period of
time in the past and may have finished, but the results
are obvious in the present.
We’ve been walking around all day. That’s why we’re so tired.
• We use the Present Perfect Simple to emphasise
the result of an action. We use the Present Perfect
Progressive to emphasise the duration of an action.
I’ve called him three times this morning.
I’ve been calling him since 9 o’clock. NOTE
TIME EXPRESSIONS
for, since, how long, all day/week, etc.
Relative Clauses
Relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns (who,
which, that, whose) and relative adverbs (where, when).
Pronouns
PEOPLE who/that
THINGS / ANIMALS /
IDEAS
which/
that
POSSESSION whose
Adverbs
PLACE where
TIME when
should/shouldn’t
We use should/shouldn’t + base form:
• to ask for and give advice.
Should I ask Linda to help me with this?
• to express an opinion.
He should be more careful when he drives.
• to make a suggestion.
You should really go to that new restaurant. It’s fantastic!
• to express mild obligation.
Students should hand in their homework on time.
We use should + have + past participle:
• to express regret about something that didn’t happen in
the past.
We should have come home earlier.
• to criticise somebody’s behaviour.
You should have called me and let me know you weren’t
coming.
NOTE Irregular verbs on page 142.
Defining relative clauses give information which is needed
to understand the meaning of the sentence. They are not
separated from the main clause by commas.
He’s the boy who/that lives next door.
The book (which/that) you bought is on the desk.
Non-defining relative clauses give extra information about
the person, thing or idea they refer to. They are always
separated from the main clause by commas.
Mr Brown, who is our Geography teacher, is quite old.
Our car, which cost us a lot, keeps breaking down.
• Who, which and that can be omitted if they refer to
the object of the sentence. Whose and where cannot
be omitted.
• In formal language prepositions appear at the
beginning of the relative clause.
In informal language they appear at the end of the
relative clause.
The chair on which I’m sitting isn’t very
comfortable. (formal)
The chair (which/that) I am sitting on isn’t very
comfortable. (informal)
NOTE
• Relative pronouns/adverbs cannot be omitted in nondefining
relative clauses; nor can we use that instead of
them.
• Prepositions usually appear at the beginning of nondefining
relative clauses.
This cupboard, in which I keep my old toys, hasn’t been
cleaned for ages.
• Which may also refer to a whole sentence.
He offered to give me a lift, which was very kind of him.
NOTE
133
• The verb ought to can be used instead of should in all
the above cases.
e.g. You ought to have let me know you weren’t coming.
NOTE
had better
We use had better + base form to give strong advice. It often
expresses threat or warning and it’s stronger than should/
ought to. It refers to the present or future, not the past. Its
negative form is had better not. In spoken English the short
form is commonly used (I’d better, you’d better, etc.).
You’d better ask a doctor about it.
We use shouldn’t + have + past participle:
• to express regret about something that happened in the past.
I shouldn’t have shouted at Larry today.
• to criticise something somebody has done.
Danny shouldn’t have told you that. It was supposed to be
a secret.
I’ll work He’ll sleep
Will you work? Will she sleep?
They won’t work It won’t sleep
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